Phenology of Leucotaraxis argenticollis, a specialist predator of the invasive hemlock woolly adelgid, in the eastern United States.

In hemlock stands within eastern US forests, classical biological control has been one of the main strategies used to manage the hemlock woolly adelgid, Adelges tsugae Annand. Specialist predator species may offer a management solution to help regulate A. tsugae populations. In the Pacific Northwest, a suite of specialist predators has been a focus of research and includes 2 species of silver fly, Leucotaraxis argenticollis (Zetterstedt) and Leucotaraxis piniperda (Malloch) (Diptera: Chamaemyiidae). Leucotaraxis spp. phenology has been documented in the Pacific Northwest, but the phenology of either western Leucotaraxis species is unknown in the eastern United States. This study sought to document the phenology of Le. argenticollis in NY in 2021 and in VA in 2021 and 2022. Nylon mesh cages were applied over eastern hemlock branches infested with A. tsugae to contain Le. argenticollis adults. Biweekly and monthly branch samples were taken in 2021 and 2022, documenting all life stages of A. tsugae and of Le. argenticollis that were observed. In 2021 and 2022, Le. argenticollis adults and eggs were present during the oviposition stage of the 2 generations of A. tsugae. In addition, Le. argenticollis larvae were present when A. tsugae ovisacs had eggs and while A. tsugae nymphs of both generations were present. These observations indicate that Le. argenticollis phenology is well synchronized with A. tsugae in the eastern United States.

3D X-ray analysis of the subterranean burrowing depth and pupal chamber size of Laricobius (Coleoptera: Derodontidae), a specialist predator of Adelges tsugae (Hemiptera: Adelgidae).

The non-native hemlock woolly adelgid (HWA), Adelges tsugae Annand (Hemiptera: Adelgidae), has caused a significant decline of eastern hemlock, Tsuga canadensis L. (Pinales: Pinaceae), and Carolina hemlock, Tsuga caroliniana Engelmann (Pinales: Pinaceae), in eastern North America. Biological control of HWA has focused on the use of 2 Laricobius spp. (Coleoptera: Derodontidae), natural predators of HWA, which require arboreal and subterranean life phases to complete their development. In its subterranean phase, Laricobius spp. are subject to abiotic factors including soil compaction or soil-applied insecticides used to protect hemlock from HWA. This study used 3D X-ray microcomputed tomography (micro-CT) to identify the depth at which Laricobius spp. burrows during its subterranean lifecycle, characterize pupal chamber volume, and determine whether soil compaction had a significant effect on these variables. The mean burrowing depth in the soil of individuals was 27.0 mm ± 14.8 (SD) and 11.4 mm ± 11.8 (SD) at compaction levels of 0.36 and 0.54 g/cm3, respectively. The mean pupal chamber volume was 11.15 mm3 ± 2.8 (SD) and 7.65 mm3 ± 3.5 (SD) in soil compacted at 0.36 and 0.54 g/cm3, respectively. These data show that soil compaction influences burrowing depth and pupal chamber size for Laricobius spp. This information will help us better identify the effect of soil-applied insecticide residues on estivating Laricobius spp. and soil-applied insecticide residues in the field. Additionally, these results demonstrate the utility of 3D micro-CT in assessing subterranean insect activity in future studies.

Development of Novel Early Detection Technology for Hemlock Woolly Adelgid, Adelges tsugae (Hemiptera: Adelgidae).

Hemlock woolly adelgid (HWA), Adelges tsugae Annand, threatens hemlock forests throughout eastern North America. Management efforts focus on early detection of HWA to ensure rapid management responses to control and stop the spread of this pest. This study's goal was to identify an affordable, efficient trap to aid with airborne environmental DNA (eDNA) sampling approaches as an early monitoring tool for HWA. We initially compared HWA detection success between a standard sticky trap, commonly used for HWA monitoring, and trap designs potentially compatible with eDNA protocols (i.e., passive trap, funnel trap, and motorized trap). Passive, funnel, and motorized traps' estimated capture success probabilities compared to sticky traps were 0.87, 0.8, and 0.4, respectively. A secondary evaluation of a modified version of the motorized trap further assessed trap performance and determined the number of traps needed in a set area to efficiently detect HWA. By modifying the original motorized trap design, its estimated capture success probability increased to 0.67 compared to a sticky trap. Overall, the cumulative capture success over the 16-week sampling period for the motorized trap was 94% and 99% for the sticky trap. The number of traps did impact capture success, and trap elevation and distance to infested hemlocks influenced the number of adelgids captured per trap. As eDNA-based monitoring approaches continue to become incorporated into invasive species surveying, further refinement with these types of traps can be useful as an additional tool in the manager's toolbox.

Hymenopteran Parasitoids of Leucotaraxis argenticollis (Diptera: Chamaemyiidae) and Leucotaraxis piniperda: Implications for Biological Control of Hemlock Woolly Adelgid (Hemiptera: Adelgidae).

The hemlock woolly adelgid (Adelges tsugae (Annand)) is a serious invasive pest of hemlock trees in eastern North America. Multiple biological control agents have been the focus of research aimed at pest management and conserving hemlock communities. Three promising A. tsugae specialist predators are the beetle Laricobius nigrinus (Fender) (Coleoptera: Derodontidae) and flies in the genus Leucotaraxis (Diptera: Chamaemyiidae), Leucotaraxis argenticollis (Zetterstedt), and Leucotaraxis piniperda (Malloch). However, these flies are vulnerable to parasitism by wasps in the genera Pachyneuron (Walker) (Hymenoptera: Pteromalidae) and Melanips (Walker) (Hymenoptera: Figitidae). This study explores parasitoid wasp interactions with these Leucotaraxis species in their native western North American range and potential impacts on the biological control program in the East. Leucotaraxis, La. nigrinus, and parasitoid emergences were observed from adelgid-infested foliage collected from Washington State and British Columbia in 2018, 2019, and 2020. Undescribed species of Pachyneuron and Melanips emerged from puparia as solitary parasitoids. Parasitoid emergence was positively correlated with Leucotaraxis emergence. Percent parasitism increased between February and July, with the months of June and July experiencing higher parasitoid emergence than Leucotaraxis. Differences in emergence patterns suggest that Pachyneuron may be more closely associated with Le. argenticollis as a host, and that Melanips may be associated with Le. piniperda. High parasitism in Leucotaraxis had no effect on La. nigrinus larval abundance, whereas the combined emergence of parasitoids and Leucotaraxis was positively correlated with La. nigrinus. This suggests that there is limited competition among these predators.

Top-down regulation of hemlock woolly adelgid (Adelges tsugae) in its native range in the Pacific Northwest of North America.

The density of insect herbivores is regulated by top-down factors (e.g., natural enemies), bottom-up effects (e.g., plant defenses against herbivory), or a combination of both. As such, understanding the relative importance of these factors can have important implications for the establishment of effective management options for invasive species. Here, we compared the relative importance of top-down and bottom-up factors on the abundance of hemlock woolly adelgid (HWA), Adelges tsugae. HWA is invasive in eastern North America, but its native range includes the Pacific Northwest of North America where it has co-evolved with western hemlock, Tsuga heterophylla. Eastern hemlock, Tsuga canadensis, can also be found planted in city and park settings in the Pacific Northwest and the presence of both host species allowed us to directly compare the importance of predators (top-down) and host plant resistance (bottom-up) on HWA abundance by placing mesh exclusion bags on branches of both species and monitoring HWA abundance over two years. We found no evidence for bottom-up control of HWA on western hemlock (a native host). HWA established more readily on that species than on eastern hemlock on which it is a major pest in eastern North America. We found strong evidence for top-down control in that both summer and winter-active predators significantly reduced HWA densities on the branches of both tree species where predators were allowed access. These findings support the validity of the biological control program for HWA, the goal of which is to reduce outbreak populations of HWA in eastern North America.

Subterranean Survivorship and Seasonal Emergence of Laricobius spp. (Coleoptera: Derodontidae), Biological Control Agents for the Hemlock Woolly Adelgid.

Following the adventive arrival, subsequent spread, and ensuing impact of Adelges tsugae Annand (Hemiptera: Adelgidae), the hemlock woolly adelgid (HWA) in the eastern United States, a robust initiative was launched with the goal of decreasing ecosystem impacts from the loss of eastern hemlock (Pinales: Pinaceae). This initiative includes the use of biological control agents, including Laricobius spp. (Insecta: Coleoptera). Laboratory production of these agents is limited by subterranean mortality and early emergence. Therefore, the subterranean survivorship and timing of emergence of a mixture of Laricobius spp. was investigated. PVC traps internally lined with a sticky card and covered with a mesh screen were inserted into the soil to measure the percent emergence of adults based on the number of larvae placed within. The number of emerged adults in the field and laboratory-reared larval treatments was adjusted based on emergence numbers in the control and used as the response variable. Independent variables included in the final model were: treatment (field-collected vs. laboratory-reared), organic layer depth (cm), soil pH, and April-to-December mean soil moisture. No differences were found in survivorship between field-collected and laboratory-reared treatments. As pH and organic layer increased survivorship decreased, significantly. Although the majority of emergence occurred in the fall, emergence also occurred in spring and summer. The occurrence of spring and summer emergence and low survivorship (17.1 ± 0.4%) in the field across all treatments suggests that these are characteristics of Laricobius spp. field biology in their introduced range and not artifacts of the laboratory rearing process.

High Rainfall May Induce Fungal Attack of Hemlock Woolly Adelgid (Hemiptera: Adelgidae) Leading to Regional Decline.

Hemlock woolly adelgid (HWA; Adelges tsugae Annand (Hemiptera: Adelgidae)) is the cause of widespread mortality of Carolina and eastern hemlock (Tsuga caroliniana Engelmann and T. canadensis (L.) Carrière) throughout the eastern United States (U.S.). Since its arrival in the northeastern U.S., HWA has steadily invaded and established throughout eastern hemlock stands. However, in 2018, anecdotal evidence suggested a sharp, widespread HWA decline in the northeastern U.S. following above-average summer and autumn rainfall. To quantify this decline in HWA density and investigate its cause, we surveyed HWA density in hemlock stands from northern Massachusetts to southern Connecticut and analyzed HWA density and summer mortality in Pennsylvania. As native fungal entomopathogens are known to infect HWA in the northeastern U.S. and rainfall facilitates propagation and spread of fungi, we hypothesized high rainfall facilitates fungal infection of aestivating nymphs, leading to a decline in HWA density. We tested this hypothesis by applying a rain-simulation treatment to hemlock branches with existing HWA infestations in western MA. Our results indicate a regional-scale decline and subsequent rebound in HWA density that correlates with 2018 rainfall at each site. Experimental rain treatments resulted in higher proportions of aestivating nymphs with signs of mortality compared to controls. In conjunction with no evidence of increased mortality from extreme winter or summer temperatures, our results demonstrate an indirect relationship between high rainfall and regional HWA decline. This knowledge may lead to better prediction of HWA population dynamics.

A new genus of Chamaemyiidae (Diptera: Lauxanioidea) predaceous on Adelgidae (Hemiptera), with a key to chamaemyiid species associated with Pinaceae-feeding Sternorrhyncha.

A new genus of Chamaemyiidae (Diptera: Lauxanioidea) is described, namely Leucotaraxis gen. nov. (type species Leucopis atrifacies Aldrich; other included species Leucotaraxis argenticollis (Zetterstedt), comb. nov., Leucotaraxis piniperda (Malloch), comb. nov., and Leucotaraxis sepiola sp. nov.). These species are predators of Adelgidae (Hemiptera) infesting Pinaceae. Leucotaraxis argenticollis is Holarctic, while the other three species are Nearctic. The phylogeny of Leucotaraxis with other representatives of Chamaemyiidae was elucidated using mitochondrial and nuclear DNA sequences and the genus was found to be monophyletic. Egg and puparial stages are discussed or described and illustrated for all species except Leucotaraxis sepiola. A key is provided to all species of Chamaemyiidae known to attack Pinaceae-infesting Sternorrhyncha, an annotated list of these taxa is provided, and a habitus photograph is provided for each genus with such species. In addition, a lectotype is designated for Leucopis olivacea Meijere, and it is synonymized under Neoleucopis obscura (Haliday), syn. nov.

The Lari-Leuco Container: A Novel Collection Arena for Separating Insects Ascending or Descending From a Plant Foliage Sample.

Efficient separation of insects from plant material for quantification and collection is an important component of entomological research. This paper reports on a novel, easily replicable container designed to efficiently collect two different biological control agents dispersing from hemlock (Tsuga spp.) foliage infested with the invasive hemlock woolly adelgid (HWA), Adelges tsugae Annand (Hemiptera: Adelgidae). The container utilizes a simplified Berlese-style funnel design to collect Laricobius spp. (Coleoptera: Derodontidae) larvae dropping from the foliage into a removable bottom jar, a central jar to house the foliage sample, and a removable top jar to collect adult silver flies (Leucopis spp., Diptera: Chamaemyiidae) emerging from puparia on the twigs. The efficacy of two designs (with and without a funnel leading to the top collection jar) was evaluated using western hemlock [Tsuga heterophylla (Raf.) Sarg.] foliage naturally colonized with HWA and the two predator genera. All Laricobius larvae were effectively collected in the bottom jar, and the addition of an inverted funnel leading to the top collection jar increased the proportion of Leucopis flies reaching the target jar from 60% to 94%. This 'Lari-Leuco' container is presented as a research and motoring tool to benefit the integrated pest management program for HWA in eastern North America and for potential use in simultaneously separating ascending and descending life stages in other insect-plant or predator-prey systems.

Biological Control of Hemlock Woolly Adelgid: Implications of Adult Emergence Patterns of Two Leucopis spp. (Diptera: Chamaemyiidae) and Laricobius nigrinus (Coleoptera: Derodontidae) Larval Drop.

The hemlock woolly adelgid (Hemiptera: Adelgidae Adelges tsugae Annand) poses a serious threat to hemlocks in eastern North America, and ongoing research is focused on the identification and development of biological controls to protect and manage hemlock resources. Three predators native to the Pacific Northwest of North America that have been the focus of much research are Leucopis argenticollis (Zetterstedt), Leucopis piniperda (Malloch) (Diptera: Chamaemyiidae), and Laricobius nigrinus (Fender) (Coleoptera: Derodontidae). This study addresses the knowledge gap of adult Leucopis spp. emergence patterns, with comparisons to the timing of larval La. nigrinus drop for pupation. Adult Leucopis spp. emergence was observed in the lab from field-collected, adelgid-infested foliage from Washington state in 2019 and 2020. Adult Leucopis spp. were collected daily as they emerged from foliage collections and identified to species using morphological features; a subset was validated using DNA barcoding. Accumulated heating degree days were calculated to compare a standardized emergence timing across collections made at different locations and temperature regimes. The abundance of the two Leucopis spp. and of the combined Leucopis spp. and La. nigrinus varied among sites and years, and no species was consistently more abundant than the other. Evaluations of seasonal emergence trends of the three species determine the predator complex behaves in a temporally stratified and predictable way. Emergence of adult Le. argenticollis was observed first, followed by La. nigrinus larval drop, with Le. piniperda emerging at the end of larval drop, and finally a second emergence of Le. argenticollis.

Ground and Stem Sampling as Potential Detection Tools for the Wool of Adelges tsugae (Hemiptera: Adelgidae).

The wool of the invasive, non-native hemlock woolly adelgid, Adelges tsugae Annand (Hemiptera: Adelgidae), occurs mostly on hemlock (Tsuga sp.) twigs, but can be dislodged from the canopy and end up on the forest floor and tree stem underneath the canopy. Herein, we developed and tested the efficacy of two novel sampling techniques, which are based on a visual examination of the forest floor and the hemlock stem for A. tsugae wool. Subsequently, we compared these two techniques to a visual examination of foliage and ball sampling which are two methods currently used operationally. We sampled 11 hemlock stands, with low to moderate incidence A. tsugae populations, near Ithaca, New York in 2016 and assessed the probability of detecting wool on a tree and in a stand, as well as the relative variation and relative net precision for each of the four techniques. We found that sampling the tree stem outperformed foliage and ground sampling, likely because of its higher detection rate and lower relative variation, but not ball sampling. Our findings suggest that combining stem, ball and ground sampling was the most effective combination of techniques and gave a high probability of detecting an infested tree or an infested stand. All techniques were an improvement over foliage sampling, even after increasing the foliage sampling effort fivefold.

Time and Chance: Using Age Partitioning to Understand How Luck Drives Variation in Reproductive Success.

AbstractOver the course of individual lifetimes, luck usually explains a large fraction of the between-individual variation in life span or lifetime reproductive output (LRO) within a population, while variation in individual traits or "quality" explains much less. To understand how, where in the life cycle, and through which demographic processes luck trumps trait variation, we show how to partition by age the contributions of luck and trait variation to LRO variance and how to quantify three distinct components of luck. We apply these tools to several empirical case studies. We find that luck swamps effects of trait variation at all ages, primarily because of randomness in individual state dynamics ("state trajectory luck"). Luck early in life is most important. Very early state trajectory luck generally determines whether an individual ever breeds, likely by ensuring that they are not dead or doomed quickly. Less early luck drives variation in success among those breeding at least once. Consequently, the importance of luck often has a sharp peak early in life or it has two peaks. We suggest that ages or stages where the importance of luck peaks are potential targets for interventions to benefit a population of concern, different from those identified by eigenvalue elasticity analysis.

Phylotranscriptomics reveals the complex evolutionary and biogeographic history of the genus Tsuga with an East Asian-North American disjunct distribution.

The disjunct distribution between East Asia and North America is one of the best established biogeographic patterns. A robust phylogeny is fundamental for understanding the biogeographic histories of taxa with this distribution pattern. Tsuga (hemlock) is a genus of Pinaceae with a typical intercontinental disjunct distribution in East Asia and eastern and western North America, and its phylogeny has not been completely reconstructed in previous studies. In this study, we reconstructed a highly resolved phylogeny of Tsuga using 881 nuclear genes, 60 chloroplast genes and 23 mitochondrial genes and explored its biogeographic and reticulate evolutionary history. The results of phylogenetic analysis, molecular dating and ancestral area reconstruction indicate that Tsuga very likely originated from North America in the late Oligocene and dispersed from America to East Asia via the Bering Land Bridge during the middle Miocene. In particular, we found complex reticulate evolutionary pattern among the East Asian hemlock species. T. sieboldii possibly originated from hybridization with the ancestor of T. chinensis from mainland China and T. forrestii as the paternal donor and the ancestor of T. diversifolia and T. ulleungensis as the maternal donor. T. chinensis (Taiwan) could have originated by hybridization together with T. sieboldii and then evolved independently after dispersal to the Taiwan Island, subsequently experiencing mitochondrial DNA introgression with T. chinensis from mainland China. Moreover, our study found that T. chinensis from western China is more closely related to T. forrestii than to T. chinensis from eastern China. The nonmonophyletic T. chinensis needs taxonomic reconsideration.

Impact of chronic stylet-feeder infestation on folivore-induced signaling and defenses in a conifer.

Our understanding of how conifers respond biochemically to multiple simultaneous herbivore attacks is lacking. Eastern hemlock (Tsuga canadensis; 'hemlock') is fed on by hemlock woolly adelgid (Adelges tsugae; 'adelgid') and by later-instar gypsy moth (Lymantria dispar; 'gypsy moth') caterpillars. The adelgid is a stylet-feeding insect that causes a salicylic acid (SA)-linked response in hemlock, and gypsy moth larvae are folivores that presumably cause a jasmonic acid (JA)-linked response. This system presents an opportunity to study how invasive herbivore-herbivore interactions mediated through host biochemical responses. We used a factorial field experiment to challenge chronically adelgid-infested hemlocks with gypsy moth caterpillars. We quantified 17 phytohormones, 26 phenolic and terpene metabolites, and proanthocyanidin, cell wall-bound (CW-bound) phenolic, and lignin contents. Foliage infested with adelgid only accumulated gibberellins and SA; foliage challenged by gypsy moth only accumulated JA phytohormones. Gypsy moth folivory on adelgid-infested foliage reduced the accumulation of JA phytohormones and increased the SA levels. Both herbivores increased CW-bound phenolics and gypsy moth increased lignin content when feeding alone but not when feeding on adelgid-infested foliage. Our study illustrates the importance of understanding the biochemical mechanisms and signaling antagonism underlying tree responses to multiple stresses and of disentangling local and systemic stress signaling in trees.

Removing riparian Rhododendron maximum in post-Tsuga canadensis riparian forests does not degrade water quality in southern Appalachian streams.

In the past century, the evergreen woody shrub, Rhododendron maximum, has experienced habitat expansion following foundational tree species die-off in eastern US deciduous forests. Rhododendron can potentially alter stream chemistry, temperature, trophic dynamics, and in-stream decomposition rates, given its dominance in riparian areas. Here we conducted two operational-scale (3 ha) riparian treatments that removed rhododendron through cutting alone (CR, canopy removal), or removing both the rhododendron canopy and forest floor using cutting and prescribed fire (CFFR, canopy and forest floor removal). We expected that rhododendron shrub removal, with or without soil organic horizon removal, would increase soil nutrient availability and subsequently alter stream pH, acid neutralizing capacity (ANC), inorganic nitrogen (NO3-N, NH4-N), total dissolved inorganic nitrogen, dissolved organic carbon (DOC), calcium (Ca), potassium (K), and magnesium (Mg). We hypothesized that responses would occur more quickly in the CFFR treatment. Treatments reduced shrub-, but not tree basal area. Treatments lowered soil N, but not C. Stream chemistry responses to treatments varied between CR and CFFR and were transient, generally with pH, N, and some cations declining, and aluminum (Al) and DOC showing a pulse increase. By removing rhododendron, the remaining deciduous trees likely accelerated N uptake as soil moisture availability increased. This could partially explain why we observed lower than expected stream nutrients (NO3-N, Ca, and Mg) after treatments. Initial rhododendron slash on the forest floor coupled with incomplete consumption of the O-horizon on the CFFR treatment likely elevated DOC in the upper soil horizons and mobilized Al. From a management perspective, using these treatments to restore structure and function to riparian forests in the wake of eastern hemlock mortality, with or without fire, would most likely not result in short-term diminished water quality that is common when overstory trees are harvested and may even lower stream NO3-N concentrations long term.

Impact of Hemlock Woolly Adelgid (Hemiptera: Adelgidae) Infestation on the Jasmonic Acid-Elicited Defenses of Tsuga canadensis (Pinales: Pinaceae).

Hemlock woolly adelgid is an invasive piercing-sucking insect in eastern North America, which upon infestation of its main host, eastern hemlock ('hemlock'), improves attraction and performance of folivorous insects on hemlock. This increased performance may be mediated by hemlock woolly adelgid feeding causing antagonism between the the jasmonic acid and other hormone pathways. In a common garden experiments using hemlock woolly adelgid infestation and induction with methyl jasmonate (MeJA) and measures of secondary metabolite contents and defense-associated enzyme activities, we explored the impact of hemlock woolly adelgid feeding on the local and systemic induction of jasmonic acid (JA)-elicited defenses. We found that in local tissue hemlock woolly adelgid or MeJA exposure resulted in unique induced phenotypes, whereas the combined treatment resulted in an induced phenotype that was a mixture of the two individual treatments. We also found that if the plant was infested with hemlock woolly adelgid, the systemic response of the plant was dominated by hemlock woolly adelgid, regardless of whether MeJA was applied. Interestingly, in the absence of hemlock woolly adelgid, hemlock plants had a very weak systemic response to MeJA. We conclude that hemlock woolly adelgid infestation prevents systemic induction of JA-elicited defenses. Taken together, compromised local JA-elicited defenses combined with weak systemic induction could be major contributors to increased folivore performance on hemlock woolly adelgid-infested hemlock.

Temporal Asynchrony of Adult Emergence Between Leucopis argenticollis and Leucopis piniperda (Diptera: Chamaemyiidae), Predators of the Hemlock Woolly Adelgid (Hemiptera: Adelgidae), with Implications for Biological Control.

Two species of silver fly, Leucopis argenticollis (Zetterstedt) and Leucopis piniperda (Malloch) (Diptera: Chamaemyiidae), from the Pacific Northwest region of North America have been identified as potential biological control agents of hemlock woolly adelgid (Hemiptera: Adelgidae: Adelges tsugae Annand) in eastern North America. The two predators are collectively synchronized with A. tsugae development. To determine whether adult emergence of the two species of silver fly are also synchronized with one another, we collected adult Leucopis which emerged from A. tsugae-infested western hemlock [Pinaceae: Tsuga heterophylla (Raf.) Sarg.] from four sites in the Pacific Northwest over a 29-d period. Specimens were collected twice daily in the laboratory and identified to species using DNA barcoding. The study found that more adult Leucopis were collected in the evening than the morning. Additionally, the daily emergences of adults over the 29-d sampling period exhibited sinusoidal-like fluctuations of peak abundance of each species, lending evidence to a pattern of temporal partitioning. This pattern could have logistical implications for their use as biological control agents in eastern North America, namely the need to release both species for maximum efficacy in decreasing A. tsugae populations.

Comparing generalized and customized spread models for nonnative forest pests.

While generality is often desirable in ecology, customized models for individual species are thought to be more predictive by accounting for context specificity. However, fully customized models require more information for focal species. We focus on pest spread and ask: How much does predictive power differ between generalized and customized models? Further, we examine whether an intermediate "semi-generalized" model, combining elements of a general model with species-specific modifications, could yield predictive advantages. We compared predictive power of a generalized model applied to all forest pest species (the generalized dispersal kernel or GDK) to customized spread models for three invasive forest pests (beech bark disease [Cryptococcus fagisuga], gypsy moth [Lymantria dispar], and hemlock woolly adelgid [Adelges tsugae]), for which time-series data exist. We generated semi-generalized dispersal kernel models (SDK) through GDK correction factors based on additional species-specific information. We found that customized models were more predictive than the GDK by an average of 17% for the three species examined, although the GDK still had strong predictive ability (57% spatial variation explained). However, by combining the GDK with simple corrections into the SDK model, we attained a mean of 91% of the spatial variation explained, compared to 74% for the customized models. This is, to our knowledge, the first comparison of general and species-specific ecological spread models' predictive abilities. Our strong predictive results suggest that general models can be effectively synthesized with context-specific information for single species to respond quickly to invasions. We provided SDK forecasts to 2030 for all 63 United States pests in our data set.

Sticky traps as an early detection tool for crawlers of Adelges tsugae (Hemiptera: Adelgidae).

We developed an approach using sticky trap arrays as an early detection tool for populations of first-instar nymphs of the hemlock woolly adelgid (Adelges tsugae Annand), a pest of hemlocks (Tsuga spp. [Pinaceae]) in North America. We considered the detection rate of at least one nymph from trapping arrays consisting of one to six sticky panels, where we varied both the surface area of each trap that we assessed and the length of the trapping duration. We also estimated the time needed to set up, service, and assess groups of traps and attempted to relate capture of nymphs on traps to incidence and abundance of A. tsugae in the canopy above the traps. Arrays consisting of two traps provided a detection rate of 75% when 87.5% of the surface area of each trap was assessed, a process that required 38 min per array. The probability of detecting nymphs on traps left in the field for 5-6 d was similar to that for traps left for 12 d. The number of nymphs trapped in an array predicted the probability of finding A. tsugae in the canopy but only when all six traps were fully assessed. To reliably detect incipient A. tsugae infestations, we recommend placing arrays of traps at 1 km intervals along the perimeter of a stand during peak activity of first-instar sistentes nymphs and servicing these arrays every 5-7 d.

High temperature and fire behavior of hydrothermally modified wood impregnated with carbon nanomaterials.

Wood is one of the most widely used construction materials but it is thermally degradable and combustible, which poses serious safety concerns. In this research, the high temperature and fire behavior of hydrothermally modified western hemlock, impregnated with carbon nanomaterials pre-adsorbed with alkali lignin, was examined by cone calorimetry, scanning electron microscopy, thermal gravimetric analysis, and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy. The hydrothermal treatment made the wood less hydrophilic, allowing the formation of a dense protective layer of carbon-rich additives on the external wood surface at low loading (5 wt%) after aqueous-phase vacuum impregnation. Results revealed that the unique combination of these two processes reduced the total heat release by up to 32%, diminished flame spread by 31%, decreased the average carbon dioxide yield by 12%, lowered the total mass loss by 10%, and significantly slowed the pyrolytic reactions of wood. This research has important implications for the development of valued-added wood products with superior fire safety from relatively low cost timbers, such as western hemlock.